Diversity and Fragmentation of Myanmar Education: Schooling Shaped by Protracted Conflict and Crisis

This rigorous review synthesises evidence on education in the conflict-affected contexts of Myanmar. Applying the ERICC conceptual framework (Kim et al., 2022), we analyse the status of education and overall outcomes in terms of access, quality, continuity and coherence of education, particularly in regions that are controlled by ethnic armed organisations (EAOs), in refugee camps and in migrant settings on the Thai-Myanmar border.

114 studies were coded against the ERICC conceptual framework to prioritise key themes at policy systems and local levels. The study found that grievances among the ethnic minority communities because of the exclusionary and hegemonic education policies adopted by the central government have contributed to the formations of diverse ethnic educational provisions that assert autonomy and serve as a vehicle for political resistance. Nevertheless, there is a significant gap in knowledge about the quality of these provisions and the extent to which they promote equity, justice and social cohesion. The 2021 coup has significantly affected all education systems in Myanmar, leading to an acute schooling and learning crisis for millions of children. Most ethnic education systems remain at risk of attack while many are regularly experiencing disruptions due to ongoing clashes between EAOs and the Myanmar military in their regions. Even though some EAOs and ethnic minority communities have historically campaigned for a federal democratic political settlement, there is evidence of ambivalence among key ethnic stakeholders with regards to the Federal Democracy Education Policy proposed by the National Unity Government.

Thailand’s restrictive policies towards refugees limits the opportunities open to refugee youth and prohibits them from seeking employment educational opportunities outside the nine refugee camps on the border. This lack of future prospects undermines refugee children’s motivation to continue education. Even though the education in refugee camps is managed by refugee organisations, their reliance on limited and precarious donor funding means that the sustainability and overall quality of the provisions are perpetually at risk. The migrant educational provisions operate within a ‘zone of exception,’ meaning they are generally tolerated by the Thai state but do not receive any governmental support. As a result, migrant learning centres largely operate with external funding. This study highlights serious gaps in education research and calls for policy-relevant and actionable research evidence that could inform educational decision-making in the conflict-affected contexts of Myanmar.